Near Eastern Languages
and Civilizations
Counselor of Undergraduate Studies: Martha Roth, Or 325,
702-9551
Departmental Secretary: Or 212, 702-9512
Program of Study
The programs for the Bachelor of Arts degree in Near Eastern Languages and Civilizations are as varied as the wide subject matter they embrace. In consultation with their advisers, students work out a program that meets their cultural interests and provides a sound basis for graduate work. The areas of specialization that can be advised include:
Arabic and Islam (including Turkish and Persian)
Archaeology and Art of the Ancient Near East
Assyriology
Egyptian Languages and Civilization
Hebrew Language and Civilization
Near Eastern Jewish Studies
Program Requirements
Twelve courses are required in the area of specialization. All students must take one of the sequences that introduce the special fields.
Hum 200-201-202. Judaic Civilization I, II, III
MdvJSt 280-281-282. Medieval Jewish History I, II, III
NECiv 211-212-213. Near Eastern Civilization I, II, III
NEHist 201-202-203. History of the Ancient Near East I, II, III
SocSci 220-221-222. Introduction to Islamic Civilization I, II, III
Normally, students take a two-year long sequence in one of the Near Eastern languages (for example, Akkadian, Arabic, Egyptian, or Hebrew). The rest of the course program, including other language arrangements, should be planned in light of special interests and needs. Students planning to do advanced work in Near Eastern studies are strongly encouraged to develop a reading knowledge of German and French. Students should consult the counselor of undergraduate studies for approval of the program.
Summary of Requirements
General| one year of a civilization sequence | |
| one year of a modern foreign language |
|
6 |
quarters of a Near Eastern language |
|
3 |
quarters of a Near Eastern civilization sequence |
|
3 |
courses related to the Near East |
|
12 |
Grading. The program in Near Eastern Languages and Civilizations uses letter grading only. No P/N or P/F grading is allowed. Students intending to work for an advanced degree should maintain at least a B average in the field of specialization.
Honors Program. An honors program is open, upon application before the end of the third year, to superior students with an overall grade point average of 3.0 or better who wish to develop an extended piece of research through a senior honors paper under the supervision of a faculty member. One or two quarters of Near Eastern History 299, which can be counted toward concentration requirements, may be devoted to preparing the senior honors paper. For a student to be recommended for honors, the paper must first be recommended by the faculty member who supervised the work. The completed paper must be submitted to the counselor of undergraduate studies no later than the fifth week of the quarter in which the student expects to graduate.
Faculty
ROBERT D. BIGGS, Professor, Department of Near Eastern Languages & Civilizations, Oriental Institute, and the College
MENACHEM BRINKER, Henry Crown Professor, Department of Near Eastern Languages & Civilizations and the College
JOHN A. BRINKMAN, Charles H. Swift Distinguished Service Professor, Department of Near Eastern Languages & Civilizations and Oriental Institute
MIGUEL CIVIL, Professor, Departments of Near Eastern Languages & Civilizations and Linguistics, Oriental Institute, and the College
ROBERT DANKOFF, Professor, Department of Near Eastern Languages & Civilizations and the College
FRED M. DONNER, Professor, Department of Near Eastern Languages & Civilizations, Oriental Institute, and the College; Chair, Department of Near Eastern Languages and Civilizations
PETER F. DORMAN, Associate Professor, Department of Near Eastern Languages & Civilizations and Oriental Institute
WALTER FARBER, Professor, Department of Near Eastern Languages & Civilizations, Oriental Institute, and the College
ARIELA FINKELSTEIN, Senior Lecturer, Department of Near Eastern Languages & Civilizations and the College
CORNELL FLEISCHER, Kanunî Süleyman Professor of Ottoman & Modern Turkish Studies, Departments of History and Near Eastern Languages & Civilizations, and the College; Director, Center for Middle Eastern Studies
MCGUIRE GIBSON, Professor, Department of Near Eastern Languages & Civilizations and Oriental Institute
NORMAN GOLB, Ludwig Rosenberger Professor, Department of Near Eastern Languages & Civilizations, Oriental Institute, and the College
GENE B. GRAGG, Professor, Departments of Near Eastern Languages & Civilizations and Linguistics, Oriental Institute, and the College; Director, Oriental Institute
LI GUO, Lecturer, Department of Near Eastern Languages & Civilizations
HARRY A. HOFFNER, John A. Wilson Professor, Department of Near Eastern Languages & Civilizations, Oriental Institute and the College
JANET H. JOHNSON, Professor, Department of Near Eastern Languages & Civilizations, Oriental Institute, and the College; Committee on the Ancient Mediterranean World
WADAD KADI, Avalon Foundation Distinguished Service Professor, Department of Near Eastern Languages & Civilizations and the College
RASHID KHALIDI, Professor, Departments of History, Near Eastern Languages & Civilizations and the College; Director, Center for International Studies
MARK LEHNER, Visiting Assistant Professor, Department of Near Eastern Languages & Civilizations and Oriental Institute
HESHMAT MOAYYAD, Professor, Department of Near Eastern Languages & Civilizations and the College
FAROUK MUSTAFA, Professorial Lecturer, Department of Near Eastern Languages & Civilizations
HAKAN ÖZOGLU, Lecturer, Department of Near Eastern Languages & Civilizations
DENNIS G. PARDEE, Professor, Department of Near Eastern Languages & Civilizations, Oriental Institute, and the College
JOHN R. PERRY, Professor, Department of Near Eastern Languages & Civilizations and the College
ROBERT RITNER, Associate Professor, Department of Near Eastern Languages & Civilizations and Oriental Institute
MARTHA T. ROTH, Professor, Department of Near Eastern Languages & Civilizations, Oriental Institute, and the College; Committee on the Ancient Mediterranean World, and Committee on Jewish Studies
DAVID SCHLOEN, Assistant Professor, Department of Near Eastern Languages & Civilizations and Oriental Institute; Committee on Jewish Studies
MATTHEW W. STOLPER, Professor, Department of Near Eastern Languages & Civilizations, Oriental Institute, and the College; Committee on the Ancient Mediterranean World
JOHN E. WOODS, Professor, Departments of History and Near Eastern Languages & Civilizations, and the College
ASLIHAN K. YENER, Associate Professor, Department of Near Eastern Languages & Civilizations, Oriental Institute, and the College; Committee on the Ancient Mediterranean World
Courses
201-202-203. Elementary Akkadian I, II, III. This course sequence fulfills the Common Core foreign language requirement. This is a three-quarter sequence covering the elements of Babylonian grammar and the cuneiform writing system, with reading exercises in Old Babylonian texts (ca. 1900 to 1600 B.C.E.), such as the Laws of Hammurabi. W. Farber. Autumn, Winter, Spring.
201-202-203. Elementary Arabic I, II, III. This course sequence fulfills the Common Core foreign language requirement. This course sequence concentrates on the acquisition of reading and aural skills in modern formal Arabic. The class meets for six hours a week. L. Guo. Autumn, Winter, Spring.
204-205-206. Intermediate Arabic I, II, III. PQ: Arab/I 203 or equivalent. L. Guo. Autumn, Winter, Spring.
271. Islamic Epic and Romance (=Arab/I 271, SoAsia 212). C. M. Naim. Autumn.
One or two courses in Armenian Studies are usually offered each year. Although specific courses change yearly, topics have included Armenian art and architecture, history, and linguistics. This program is made possible through the United Armenian Cultural Association/The Ara and Edna Dumanian Foundation Endowment Fund.
201-202. Introduction to Egyptian Hieroglyphs. PQ: Second-year standing. This course sequence, together with Egypt 203, fulfills the Common Core foreign language requirement. This course examines hieroglyphic writing and the grammar of the language of classical Egyptian literature. Staff. Autumn, Winter.
203-211. Middle Egyptian Texts I, II. Egypt 203, together with Egypt 201-202, fulfills the Common Core foreign language requirement. This course features readings in a variety of genres, including historical, literary, and scientific texts. Staff. Autumn, Spring.
212. Introduction to Hieratic. PQ: Egypt 201-203 required; Egypt 211 recommended. This course is an introduction to the cursive literary and administrative script of Middle Egyptian (corresponding to the Middle Kingdom period in Egypt) and is intended to provide the student with a familiarity with a variety of texts written in hieratic, including literary tales, religious compositions, wisdom literature, letters, accounts, and graffiti. P. Dorman. Winter.
213. Introduction to Old Egyptian. PQ: Egypt 201-203 required; Egypt 211 recommended. This course examines the hieroglyphic writing and grammar of the Old Kingdom (Egypt's "Pyramid Age"), focusing on monumental readings from private tombs, royal and private stelae, administrative decrees, economic documents, and Pyramid Texts. Some attention is given to Old Egyptian texts written in cursive hieratic as well. P. Dorman. Spring.
221. Introduction to Coptic. PQ: Knowledge of earlier Egyptian language phases or of Classical or Koine Greek helpful but not required. This course provides an introduction to the last native language of Egypt, in common use during the Roman, Byzantine, and Medieval Islamic periods (fourth to tenth centuries C.E.). Grammar and vocabulary of the standard Sahidic Dialect are presented in preparation for reading biblical, monastic, and Gnostic literature, as well as a variety of historical and social documents. P. Dorman. Autumn.
222. Coptic Texts. PQ: Egypt 221. This course builds on the basics of grammar learned in Introduction to Coptic and provides readings in a variety of Coptic texts, including monastic texts, biblical excerpts, tales, and Gnostic literature. P. Dorman. Winter.
223. Introduction to Late Egyptian. A comprehensive examination of the grammar, vocabulary, and orthographic styles of the nonliterary vernacular of New Kingdom Egypt (Dynasties XVIII to XXIV), as exhibited by admin-istrative and business documents, private letters, and official monuments. The course also includes a study of the hybrid "literary Late Egyptian" used for tales and other compositions. Texts from the various genres are read and analyzed in the continuation, Egypt 331. R. Ritner. Spring.
260. Near Eastern Civilization II: Introduction to Egyptian Religion (=Egypt 260, NECiv 212). The course provides a general introduction to the theology and ritual practice of Ancient Egypt from the Predynastic Period to the late Roman Empire (ca. 3,100 B.C.E. to 543 C.E.). Illustrated lectures survey primary mythology, the nature of Egyptian "magic," the evolving role of the priesthood, the function of temple and tomb architecture, mummification and funerary rites, the Amarna revolution and the origins of monotheism, and the impact of Egyptian religion on neighboring belief systems. Students read a wide array of original texts in addition to modern interpretive studies. Texts in English. R. Ritner. Winter.
201-202-203. Introductory Modern Hebrew I, II, III (=Hebrew 201-202-203, JewStd 250-251-252/350, LngLin 201-202-203). This course sequence fulfills the Common Core foreign language requirement. This course introduces students to reading, writing, and speaking modern Hebrew. All four language skills are emphasized: comprehension of written and oral materials; reading of nondiacritical text; writing of directed sentences, paragraphs, and compositions; and speaking. Students learn the Hebrew root pattern system and the seven basic verb conjugations in both the past and present tenses, as well as simple future. At the end of the year, students can conduct short conversations in Hebrew, read materials designed to their level, and write short essays. A. Finkelstein. Autumn, Winter, Spring.
204-205-206. Intermediate Modern Hebrew I, II, III (=Hebrew 204-205-206, JewStd 253-254-255/353-354-355, LngLin 204-205-206). The course is devised for students who had previously taken either modern or biblical Hebrew courses. The main objective is to provide students with the skills necessary to approach modern Hebrew prose, both fiction and nonfiction. In order to achieve this task, students are provided with a systematic examination of the complete verb structure. Many syntactic structures are introduced, including simple clauses, and coordinate and compound sentences. At this level, students not only write and speak extensively, but are also required to analyze grammatically and contextually all of the material assigned. A. Finkelstein. Autumn, Winter, Spring.
230-231-232. Advanced Modern Hebrew I, II, III (=Hebrew 230-231-232, JewStd 256-257-258/356-357-358). This course assumes that students have full mastery of the grammatical and lexical content at the intermediate level. However, there is a shift from a reliance on the cognitive approach to an emphasis on the expansion of various grammatical and vocabulary-related subjects. Students are introduced to sophisticated and more complex syntactic constructions, and instructed how to transform simple sentences into more complicated ones. The exercises address the creative effort on the part of the student, and the reading segments are longer and more challenging in both style and content. The language of the texts reflects the literary written medium rather than the more informal spoken style, which often dominates the introductory and intermediate texts. A. Finkelstein. Autumn, Winter, Spring.
242-243. Historical Introduction to Modern Hebrew Literature I, II. This course deals with the intertextual nature of Hebrew literature in all its periods. The first quarter consists of an historical survey of the various periods of Hebrew literary creativity: the Bible, the Midrash, medieval poetry, and the modern era. The second quarter focuses on the main forms of modern Hebrew literature and the disputes concerning the beginning of modernity in Hebrew literature (the role of autobiography, the novel, and the long poem) in addition to the impact of German and Russian literatures and modern Hebrew literature as a vehicle of social criticism. M. Brinker. Autumn, Winter.
250-251-252. Elementary Classical Hebrew I, II, III (=Hebrew 250-251-252, JewStd 220-221-222/302). This course sequence fulfills the Common Core foreign language requirement. Staff. Autumn, Winter, Spring.
253-254-255. Intermediate Classical Hebrew I, II, III (=Hebrew 253-254-255, JewStd 223-224-225/305). D. Pardee. Autumn, Winter, Spring.
220-221-222. Elementary Hittite I, II, III. This course sequence fulfills the Common Core foreign language requirement. H. Hoffner. Autumn, Winter, Spring.
323-324-325. Intermediate Hittite I, II, III. H. Hoffner. Autumn, Winter, Spring.
326-327-328. Advanced Hittite I, II, III. H. Hoffner. Autumn, Winter, Spring.
280-281-282. Medieval Jewish History I, II, III (=Hum 230-231-232, JewStd 230-231-232/381-382-383, MdvJSt 280-281-282). PQ: Consent of instructor. This three-quarter sequence deals with the history of the Jews over a wide geographical and historical range. First-quarter work is concerned with the rise of early rabbinic Judaism and development of the Jewish community in Palestine and the eastern and western diasporas during the first several centuries C.E. Topics include the legal status of the Jews in the Roman world, the rise of rabbinic Judaism, the rabbinic literature of Palestine in that context, the spread of rabbinic Judaism, the rise and decline of competing centers of Jewish hegemony, the introduction of Hebrew language and culture beyond the confines of their original home, and the impact of the birth of Islam on the political and cultural status of the Jews. An attempt is made to evaluate the main characteristics of Jewish belief and social concepts in the formative periods of Judaism as it developed beyond its original geographical boundaries. Second-quarter work is concerned with the Jews under Islam, both in Eastern and Western Caliphates. Third-quarter work is concerned with the Jews of Western Europe until the time of the first crusade. N. Golb. Autumn, Winter, Spring.
201-202-203-204-205. Art and Archaeology of the Near East I, II, III, IV, V. May be taken in sequence or individually. These courses present the archaeological sequences in the Near East from the Paleolithic period through the Islamic period. The archaeologies of Mesopotamia, Anatolia, Syria-Palestine, and Egypt are covered. Topics for 1998-1999 include Mesopotamian (autumn), Anatolian (winter), and Islamic (spring) archaeology. Staff. NEArch 201-202-203 offered Autumn, Winter, Spring; NEArch 204-205 not offered 1998-1999; will be offered 1999-2000.
350. Method and Theory in Near Eastern Archaeology. This course introduces the main issues in archaeological method and theory with emphasis on the principles and practice of Near Eastern archaeology. Topics covered are (1) the history of archaeology, (2) trends in social theory and corresponding modes of archaeological interpretation, (3) the nature of archaeological evidence and issues of research design, (4) survey and excavation methods and associated recording techniques, (5) the analysis and interpretation of various kinds of excavated materials, and (6) the presentation and publication of archaeological results. Staff. Winter.
101. Introduction to the Middle East. This course is designed for those with no previous knowledge of the Middle East. Its goals are to facilitate a general understanding of some key factors that have shaped life in the region, with primary emphasis on modern conditions, and to provide exposure to some of the region's rich cultural diversity. In addition, it can serve as a basis for the further study of the history, politics, and civilizations of the Middle East, which can be pursued in other courses in the humanities and social sciences. F. Donner. Spring.
211-212-213. Near Eastern Civilization I, II, III. This course sequence fulfills the Common Core requirement in civilizational studies. May be taken in sequence or individually. This sequence introduces students to central aspects of Near Eastern civilization through the examination of textual and archaeological evidence from key regions and periods.
211. Near Eastern Civilization I: Survey of Mesopotamian Literature in Translation (=JewStd 211/311, NECiv 211). This course surveys a range of Sumerian, Babylonian, and Assyrian literature, including the great epic cycles such as the Epic of Gilgamesh and the Creation Epic, and less well-known incantations, poetry, fables, and wisdom literature. M. Roth. Autumn.
212. Near Eastern Civilization II: Introduction to Egyptian Religion (=Egypt 260, NECiv 212). This course provides a general introduction to the theology and ritual practice of Ancient Egypt from the Predynastic Period to the late Roman Empire (ca. 3,100 B.C.E. 543 C.E.). Illustrated lectures survey primary mythology, the nature of the Egyptian "magic", the evolving role of the priesthood, the function of temple and tomb architecture, mummification and funerary rites, the Amarna revolution and the origins of monotheism, and the impact of Egyptian religion on neighboring belief systems. Students read a wide array of original texts in addition to modern interpretive studies. Texts in English. R. Ritner. Winter.
213. Near Eastern Civilization III: Islamic Civilization. This course sequence begins with the fundamental texts of Islam and follows the working out of some of their themes in the development of Islamic civilization in the following centuries. J. Perry. Spring.
220-221-222. Introduction to Islamic Civilization I, II, III (=NECiv 220-221-222, SocSci 220-221-222). This course surveys the religious, political, and cultural institutions of Islam, both in their historical development and in their contemporary significance. Each of the three quarters focuses on one of these aspects. In the first quarter we discuss Islamic religious institutions and thought, including Qur'an and its exegesis; law, theology, and mysticism; sectarian divisions; and modern reform movements. In the second quarter we study the political and social institutions of the Islamic world, ranging from Africa to Central Asia and from Indonesia to the Balkans, but concentrating on the major polities of the central region, the Middle East, in their historical evolution. In the third quarter we survey oral, literary, and artistic expression in Islamic cultures; we read excerpts from Arabic, Persian, and Turkish literatures, and we examine monuments of the visual arts. Texts in English. Not offered 1998-1999; will be offered 1999-2000.
242. The Art of the Ancient World (=ArtH 195, ClCiv 242, NECiv 242). This course is intended to provide students with a basic introduction to a broad spectrum of the arts of the ancient world. Beginning with the art of the Neolithic Near East and ending with Late Antiquity, the course examines the art and architecture of cultures that include Sumerian, Assyrian, Egyptian, Minoan, Mycenaean, Greek, Etruscan, and Roman. C. Faraone, I. Rowland, K. Wilson. Spring.
201-202-203. History of the Ancient Near East I, II, III. This course sequence fulfills the Common Core requirement in civilizational studies. This sequence surveys the history of the ancient Near East from the earliest periods to the death of Alexander the Great (323 B.C.E.). Areas covered include Mesopotamia, Anatolia, Syria-Palestine, Iran, and Egypt. J. Brinkman, Staff. Not offered 1998-1999; will be offered 1999-2000.
240. Byzantium and the Arabs (=Hist 242, NEHist 240). This lecture/discussion course involves an examination of critical moments and trends in the relationships of Byzantines and Arabs, from the third through tenth centuries C.E. Readings include primary sources and modern scholarly interpretations, but there is no single textbook. There is extensive discussion of important issues in modern interpretations. There is some discussion of relevant archaeology and topography. Texts in English. W. Kaegi. Winter.
280. History of Iran: Eighteenth to Twentieth Century. PQ: Consent of instructor. J. Perry. Spring.
286-287-288. History of the Islamic Middle East: 600 to the Present (=Hist 257-258-259/357-358-359, NEHist 286-287-288). May be taken in sequence or individually. This course is a survey of the main trends in the political history of the Middle (Near) East, including North Africa, Central Asia, and North India, with some attention given to currents in economic, social, and cultural history. The autumn quarter covers ca. 600 to 1000 C.E., including the rise and spread of Islam, the age of the imperial caliphate, and the beginnings of regionalism. The winter quarter covers the "middle periods," ca. 1000 to 1700 C.E. including the arrival of the Steppe Peoples (Turks and Mongols), the Mongol successor states, and the Mamluks of Egypt and Syria, and the foundation of the great Islamic regional empires of the Ottomans, Safavids, and Moghuls. The spring quarter surveys the modern Middle East (since 1700), including such topics as Western military, economic, and ideological encroachment; the impact of such ideas as nationalism and liberalism; and the emergence of the "modern" Middle East. R. Khalidi, Autumn, Spring; J. Woods, Winter.
297. Reading Course. PQ: Consent of faculty adviser and counselor of undergraduate studies. Students are required to submit the College Reading and Research Course Form. Staff. Autumn, Winter, Spring.
299. Senior Honors Paper. PQ: Consent of instructor and counselor of undergraduate studies. Students are required to submit the College Reading and Research Course Form. In consultation with a faculty member, students devote the equivalent of one or two quarter-courses to the preparation of a senior honors paper. For more information on the honors program, consult the general description in the front of this catalog section. Staff. Autumn, Winter, Spring.
301-302. Islamic Origins. PQ: Ability to utilize for research primary sources in one relevant language (Arabic, Byzantine Greek, Syriac, Coptic, Pahlavi, Armenian, Aramaic, or South Arabic) or primary materials for archaeology or art history, and consent of instructor. Reading knowledge of French or German helpful. A two-quarter research seminar exploring the history of the Near East in the period 500 to 700 C.E. with particular emphasis on the Late Antique context for the rise of Islam, the events and issues of the earliest Islamic period (roughly first century A.H.) and the historiographical debate over the nature of early Islam. F. Donner. Not offered 1998-1999; will be offered 1999-2000.
360-361. The High Caliphate I, II. PQ: Ability to utilize for research primary sources in one relevant language (Arabic, Persian, Pahlavi, Byzantine Greek, Syriac, Coptic, or Armenian) or primary materials for archaeology or art history, and consent of instructor. Reading knowledge of French or German helpful. A two-quarter research seminar exploring the history of the Near East in the period ca. 650 to 950 C.E., with particular emphasis on the institution of the caliphate; growth of the Islamic empire under the Umayyad and Abbasid caliphs; development of an institutional infrastructure, including the military, bureaucracy, and judiciary; problems of legitimation; problems of imperial integration in the face of regional, local, and clan-based particularism; development of urbanism; and social and economic change. F. Donner. Autumn, Winter.
475. Research Seminar in Near Eastern History. PQ: A clearly defined research topic on some problem of Near Eastern history in any period, and ability to pursue research using primary sources (textual, archaeological, or art historical), and consent of instructor. This course provides a context for students to write research papers on topics of their choice. Students pursue research mainly under the supervision of a faculty adviser of their choice, but present their initial proposals and final drafts to the seminar for comments and suggestions of instructor and other students. Any subject in Near Eastern history (broadly defined) or the humanistic social sciences, from remote antiquity to the present, including many topics in religion, literature, intellectual history, law, and so on, is suitable. Staff. Winter.
201-202-203. Elementary Persian I, II, III. This course sequence fulfills the Common Core foreign language requirement. The sequence concentrates on modern written Persian, with an introduction to classical literature and modern colloquial usage. Upon completion of the grammar (by the end of winter quarter), stories, articles, and poetry are read and movies are viewed. The class meets three hours a week with the instructor and one hour with a native informant who conducts grammatical drills and Persian conversation. J. Perry. Autumn, Winter, Spring.
204-205-206. Intermediate Persian I, II, III. PQ: Persn 203 and consent of department chairman. Staff. Autumn, Winter, Spring.
207. Women in Persian Literature. A number of medieval and some of the greatest twentieth century poets of Iran are women. Persian epic poetry, both heroic and romantic, is rich on fascinating female figures whose stories are read throughout the centuries. This course consists of reading selections of Persian poetry and short stories. Texts in English. H. Moayyad. Autumn.
301-302-303. Elementary Sumerian I, II, III. PQ: Akkcun 201. This sequence covers the elements of Sumerian grammar, with reading exercises in Ur III, pre-Sargonic, and elementary literary texts. M. Civil. Autumn (303), Winter (301), Spring (302).
201-202-203. Elementary Turkish I, II, III. This course sequence fulfills the Common Core foreign language requirement. This sequence features proficiency-based instruction emphasizing grammar in modern Turkish. The course consists of reading and listening comprehension, as well as grammar exercises and basic writing in Turkish. The instructor is assisted by a native informant who conducts grammatical drills and Turkish conversations focusing on everyday topics. Modern stories and contemporary articles are read towards the end of the sequence. The class meets for six hours a week. H. Özoglu. Autumn, Winter, Spring.
204-205-206. Intermediate Turkish I, II, III. PQ: Turk 203 or equivalent. H. Özoglu. Autumn, Winter, Spring